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ALBANIANS AND ISLAM
BETWEEN
EXISTENCE AND EXTINCTION
ALBANIANS: WHO
ARE THEY?
Albanians
are the biggest Muslim nation of Europe. It is believed that they
derive from the ancient Illyrian tribes which inhabited Europe
2000 years before. With the advent of Pax Islamica in
Europe under the Osmanlis, they were the first Balkanic nation to
be integrated in the Ottoman Empire and massively convert in
Islam. Albanians found many benefits and careers with the
Osmanlis. They for example, constituted the bulk of the Osmanli
armies,[1]
as most of the janissary corps were manned by them.[2]
People like the Shemsedin Sami who contributed to the
modernization of the Ottoman state during the 19th
century were Albanians. Mehmet Ali Pasha who established Egypt as
an independent state in the 19th century was also an
Albanian. Shaikh Nasirudin Albani of the 20th century
Salafi School was also Albanian. Albanians were detrimental on
saving the Ottoman Empire from its chaos of 1653 – 1656 and
putting it under control from 1656 – 1702 by five famous
Albanian Koprülü grand viziers.[3]
One of the most important generals which Sultan Mehmet Al-Fâtih
had during his 15th century capture of Constantinople
(Istanbul) and Italian ports[4]
was an Albanian named Gedik Ahmed Pasha, a descendant of the
Albanian tribe of Skura.[5]
At
our present days, Albanians live scattered in three Balkanic
countries; in Albania, Kosova and Macedonia. Their countries were
created after the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in the First
Balkanic War of 1913 from the Balkanic Alliance of Serbia, Greece,
Bulgaria and Montenegro. While Kosova and Macedonia were
incorporated into Yugoslavia after the First Balkanic War, Albania
for its part was projected to be a ‘buffer state’ from
Austria and Italy against any Slavic expansion in the Adriatic
Sea.[6]
The Albanian post-Ottoman
state has gone through many difficult moments after its creation.
It has witnessed two World Wars, many existential threats from its
neighbors, ethnic cleansings, invasions, famines and anarchies.
Albania’s present
population is 3 million and half. Its main ethnic group consist of
Albanians. Other minorities living in the country include Greeks,
Vlachs, Serbs, Gypsies and Bulgarians. According to Albania’s
1967 census, 73% of its population is Muslim (70% are Sunni, while
the rest are suffi and Bektashi followers), 14% Orthodox and 10%
Catholics. Albania’s total territory is 28.000 km2. Its
capital city is Tirana, founded in the 17th century by
an Albanian Pasha who originally named it Teheran.
ALBANIANS
AND ISLAM: TO BE OR NOT TO BE?
Albania’s
history after the fall of the Ottoman Empire has seen, as with
many other Muslim minorities in the world unending inquisitions
and crusades. In different times of its modern history, its Muslim
population has suffered many persecutions. The worst persecution
of Albanian Muslims came in 1967 when its communist regime decided
to abolish any religious freedom in the country and declared
Albania atheist state. During the decades of communist horrors
which lasted until 1991, many Albanian Hojas (Imams) and
Dervishes were assassinated, imprisoned or exiled by the
regime. Their temples demolished, and religious literature banned
and destroyed. Communist’s massacres against Albanian
Muslims sent its – after 1990 Muslim generation – to
wake up in total jahiliyah about its Islamic past. The
Muslims majority of pre-1967 Albania had by 1991 a very vague idea
about its Islamic identity.
The
communist state sponsored propaganda and ideology which developed
in Albania during the years of communism, had its main scope the
de-Islamization of Albanians. For this reason a process of
historical manipulation of Albania’s Islamic past was put in
action by communists. Communist historians portrayed Albania’s
history under the Ottomans and Pax Islamica in
pan-Christian and Marxist[7]
terms. They treated the pax Osmanica in Albania as an era
of butchery, ignorance, backwardness, conquest, Asiatic yoke and
feudal exploitation.[8]
The Albanian official historiography and state propaganda refused
and still refuses to – in any possible way appreciate or, at
least, recognize any achievement whatsoever of the Pax Islamica
in the Balkans. In order of making Albania’s new
generation as terrified and appalled with its Islamic origin the
official Albanian historiography and mythmakers have openly
ignored the positive role that the Ottoman Empire had towards
Albanians in their development and integration in history.[9]
The communist regime portrayed Albania and Albanians’
history under the Osmanli Devlet as an era of continuous conflicts
between the so-called “Albanian Christian freedom-fighters”
and the “Ottoman imperial invaders”. The process of
mass-islamization of Albanians was painted as result of Turkish
yoke and violence against Christian loving Albanians. Christians
figures like those of Scanderbeg, Pjeter Bogdani and Millosh
Kopili which in many cases were of a dubious Albanian origin were
mythified by the official anti-Muslim communist propaganda, while
real Albanian national figures like Ali Pashë Tepelena or the
Bushati Pashas of Northern Albania, which constituted important
figures in the Albanian history have been left in dark and
de-glorified, since the latter were found to be Muslim-like heroes
by the communist Brahmans.
*
* *
With the advent of democracy
after 1990 in Eastern Europe, the religious freedoms were
constituted back even in Albania. Albanians were allowed to
re-practice their religions again. This made its Muslims feel that
they could recover their lost identity. The new democratic regime
which was installed in Albania in 1991 allowed Albanian Muslims to
start some re-Islamizing steps. In this time Albania become member
of the Organization of the Islamic Conference. An Arab-Albanian
Islamic Bank was established in Tirana and around 20 Arab Islamic
Foundations and organizations opened their branches in the
country. Those shortly lived organizations were engaged from 1991
until 1996 in a process of Islamic education and mosque buildings.
Apart from their shortcomings they managed to print and distribute
good volumes of Muslim literature in Albanian and build dozens of
mosques in the country. However the coup d’etat which
happened in Albania in 1997 with the interference of Greece
against the democratic regime of Sali Berisha, brought the
ex-communists in power again. They in return started a second
crusade against Islam in the country, which sent most of the Arab
- Islamic organizations operating in the country to be closed.
Albania’s newly established communist government had West’s
consent and backing on demolishing the newly established Islamic
organizations in the country and slowing the process of
re-Islamization of Albanians.
*
* *
The
Muslims of Albania are represented by The Albanian Muslim
Community (Komuniteti Musliman Shqiptar) led by Hafiz Sabri Koçi.
This NGO which has a loose – but state recognized –
control over the mosques of the country is focused in the
maintenance of the present Muslim religious infrastructure. Its
religious/cultural activities are dependent entirely on foreign
help. The few madrasas which the Albanian Muslim Community (AMC)
has, run in very poor conditions. Their staff is often very poorly
educated, its madrasas are often without running water, cleanness,
necessary cloth for students and books. Since its establishment in
1991 the Albanian Muslim Community did not manage to constitute a
real “Moslem Church” for the revival of Islam in
Albania. It has been a policy of the Albanian state since 1991 and
more strongly after 1997, to impose its own people as leading
staff of the AMC. Many SHIK agents (Albanian Secret Service) are
believed to work in the structures of AMC.
Albania’s
new generation of believers has risen many times in rebellions
against AMC tactics’ and uneducated leadership and has
requested a democratic representation in it. Albanian Muslims want
to see the AMC be a real representative and defender of their
needs. However their requests have been futile since the state has
continuously sabotaged Albanian Muslims’ desire to create a
democratic all-representing ‘Muslim Church’ for their
community.
Part of AMC’s
weakness comes partly from the financial poverty on which this NGO
runs. Even that the Albanian Muslim Community inherits many WAKF
lands and estates from pre-communist Albania, it has not managed
to recover those properties for its own use. The hand of the state
mafia and inner sabotage, which many believe to exist in the AMC,
has sent many of its WAKF properties to be sold or stolen by
powerful businessmen and Mafiosi. Many other WAKF properties of
the Albanian Muslim Community have not been returned to AMC from
the state, which confiscated them during the era of communism. In
addition to the above mentioned problems, AMC’s economical
bankruptcy has sent it, in many cases, to sell its WAKF estates in
very low prices in order of receiving money for fulfilling its
urgent needs.
The
economical poverty which AMC inherits at present has sent its
authority to be very much degraded. The Imams which work for AMC
in its mosques around the country get as low salaries as 50 US$ a
month. AMC’s higher staff itself gets 150US$ a month. With
this kind of income in Albania, which is one of the most expensive
countries of Balkans, the AMC staff is the poorest paid religious
staff of the country. In comparison to other religious workers
operating in the country, Albanian Muslims are the poorest of them
all. The poverty of AMC and its staff needs to be readdressed by
the Muslims of Albania, if they want to really create a Moslem
Church for their community. However Albania’s overall
poverty and backwardness is making such a step almost
impossible.
THE
CHRISTIAN DOMINATION
Besides
the Islamic Community, two other major religious entities exist in
Albania: the Catholic and Orthodox Churches. Their influence and
role is spread all over the country, on the political stage, as
well as in the media. The geographical positioning of Muslim
Albania, between the Christian Constantinople and Rome has
historically turned it into a clashing zone between the Oriental
Orthodoxy and Occidental Catholicism. The historical crusades,
from those of Pope Urban II in the 11th century,
continued by others in the Ottoman’s days, have
distinguished Albania as a major kulturkampf zone between
the hordes of Orient and Occident for domination and forced
evangelization.
Since
Albanians are a small nation, surrounded by mighty powers, their
fate has always been to be divided into different quarrelling
blocks of foreign interests. Albania’s (Byzantine) national
flag of the two-headed eagles is a living witness of its fragile
duality in history. Christianity, Islâm, political
ideologies like: communism / capitalism, imperialism / socialism,
Orientalism / Occidentalism, have historically divorced and
clashed upon Albania. Yet Albania’s religious duality
witnessed a time of longing peace after the day when the Christian
Constantinople became Istanbul of Islâm in 1453 by the
Ottomans under Sultan Mehmed Al-Fâtih. With the fall
of Constantinople the Osmanli authority was established in
Albania as well. With it the intra Christian quarrellings of
Albania were terminated as Islam established itself in the country
for five following centuries.
Nevertheless
the retreat of the Ottoman Empire from Balkans in 1913 incited the
old Christian imperialism against Albania again. Their
intervention in Albanian politics was tremendous after 1913.
However the Christian imperialism found better grounds for
grabbing Albanians into their camps after 1990. The impoverished
and vague – understanding of Albanians about their Islamic
past, made the renegadization of Albanians much simpler than
before. The Christian investments in post 1990 Albania were
tremendously great. In this point the Catholic Church is one of
the most powerful institutions. With the strong backing of the
West, and especially Italy and Vatican it is probably one of the
most powerful institutions of Albania. The Catholic propaganda on
proselyting Albanians has been very aggressive in the past years.
Their activities in the country are uncountable but here we may
mention the visit of the Pope in Albania, the establishment of a
great Catholic Cathedral in the heart of Tirana, the opening of a
Catholic University in the country, establishment of numerous
institutions, newspapers, radios and even a political party. Even
that Albanian Catholics officially constitute only 10% of the
population, they have managed to build modern churches, religious
schools and kindergartens, children villages, hospitals etc. At
present they are at the last steps of opening of their Catholic
University in Durrës. Apart from all the above, the Catholic
Church has managed in many times to becomes a shadow of the
Albanian overall politics in the west. Apart from the religious
activity the Church has opened many centers for recruiting
Albanian intellectuals in its ideology and indoctrination. Vatican
and Italy sponsor the Demochristian Party of Albania which is run
by Catholic fundamentalists who claim that Albanian’s future
remains in Europe with conversion into Catholicism. With the
powerful financial backing of Vatican, Austria and Italy the
DemoChristians have opened branches of their party in all corners
of Albania. They run two powerful local newspapers: Koha Jone and
Albania, as well as sponsor Gazeta 55, Shqiperia Etnike, magazines
like Phoenix, and institutes like the Albanian Institute for
Strategic Studies, Don Bosco etc.
The
Orthodox Church is also a very powerful Church operating in
present Albania and according to the popular belief of many
Albanians is the real state which runs the country. It has the
open support of Greece and Serbia. After the 1997 coup in Albania,
Greece managed to install almost all the state apparatus of
Albania with its people. From the prime-minister Fatos Nano,
ex-Foreign Minister Paskal Milo, as well as many other ministers,
politicians and government officials who run Albanian politics at
present are Orthodox or at least anti-Islamists. Like the
Catholics, the Orthodox Church runs many institutions in Albania,
like church hospitals, public schools, companies, institutes,
radios and newspapers. The leader of the Albanian Orthodox Church
is a Greek citizen, Anastas Yanulatos. This Church, beside the
religious conversion, makes the national assimilation of Albanians
as well. They have great influence upon Albanian immigrants in
Greece, whose number is more than 500.000. [10]
Since amongst Orthodox Albanians, many are not Albanians by origin
but Vlachs, Greek propaganda of the past 10 years has tried to
reorganize and empower them economically in the country and remind
them about their ethnic background. At present, Vlachs are in very
powerful controlling positions in Albania’s institutions.
From the mayor of Tirana, to the director of Academy of Sciences,
the publisher of Albania’s biggest daily newspaper, deans of
faculties of economics, history, psychology and literature in
Tirana University, the director of Sorros, minister of defense and
many more are Vlachs by origin and close friends and supporters of
archbishop Yanulatos and Greece. Vlachs and Greeks of Albania have
great influence in the ruling Socialist Party of Albania. Apart
from it, they have also their political party as well, the Party
for the Defense of Human Rights (known with its previous name as
Omonia). In the last 6 years it has managed to take 4 – 6
ministries from the ruling Socialist Party, which needs to appease
them in order of having Greece’s blessings on its smooth
running.
*
* *
A
great number of Protestant, Mormon, Jehovah’s Witness and
other alien churches operate in Albania, apart from the Catholic
and Orthodox Churches. They have been planted in the country after
1991 and have managed to convert into their sects many
impoverished Albanians. Their activities are massively supported
by Christian countries. USA, Austria, Italy, Greece, Serbia as the
well as the whole Christian world support hundreds of Christian
organizations, NGO-s, Churches and missionary orders operating in
Albania. In their tactics of proselyting Albanian Muslims, they
often go in open attacks against the Islamic character of the
majority of Albanians. If the present Albanian Muslim Community
has only two old cars for transport, the Churches operating in
Albania have in many cases even helicopters. They are like states
within a state. With their economic superiority they organize
massive exhibitions, conferences, TV proselyting emissions and
publications targeting Albanian Muslims. Many of the protestant
Christian Churches and organizations which operate in Albania at
present, run schools, foundations, institutes, orphanages and
clinics. They operate four radios as well, even that the Albanian
legislation prohibits the existence of religious radios when it
comes to Muslims. Many of the Churches operation in Albania, are
believed by common Albanians to be involved in espionage
activities against the country. This suspicion has been verified
in many cases, when local Albanian newspapers have openly admitted
that many religious missionaries operating in Albania have been
CIA operatives.
Since the
number of the Christian NGO’s and Centers operating in
Albania is too great, tracing them all is almost impossible.
However the following list can bring some light to the extent of
the crusade which Albania faces at present:
SJAA
(St. John Ambulance Association); SSJE (Society of St. John
Evangelist); SPSM (Society for the Sacred Mission); SCM (Student
Christian Movement); UCCD (United Christian Council for
Democracy); VAT (Voluntary Aid Detachment); YMFS (Young Men’s
Friendly Society); PSCE (People’s Society for Christian
Endeavor); C.O.S. (Charity Organization Society); FANY (First Aid
Nursing Yeomanry); BSC - Bethany Christian Services (“Shërbimet
Kristiane Bethany”,); CF - Cross Foundation (“Fondacioni
i Kryqit”); FPEC - Foundation Program for Evangelization of
Children (“Fondacioni Program për Ungjillizimin e
Fëmijëve”); Power of Light (“Fuqia e
Dritës”); International Professional Development
(“Zhvillimi Ndërkombëtar Profesional”);
Humanitarian Foundation for Protection of Women and Children
(“Fondacioni humanitar i mbrojtjes së gruas dhe
fëmijës”); Adams’ Humanitarian Foundation
(“Fondacioni Humanitar Adams”); “Word of Life”
Foundation (“Fondacioni ‘Fjala e Jetës’”);
God Loves Albania (“Zoti e do Shqipërinë”);
Way of Peace (“Rruga e Paqes”); Austria for Albania
Foundation (“Fondacioni Austria për Shqipërinë”);
Church of Christ Tirana (“Kisha e Krishtit Tiranë”);
Siloah Fellowship International; Albanian Encouragement Project
(“Projekti për inkurajimin e Shqipërisë”);
Norsk Nordhjelp; International Christian Foundation (“Fondacioni
Kristian Ndërkombëtar”); Nostra Signora del Buon
Consiglio; Orthodox Clinic of Evangelization (“Klinika
Ortodokse e Ungjillizimit”); Bethany Fellowship Albania;
Christian Center Victory (“Qendra Kristiane ‘Fitorja’”);
Mission Emanuel for Albania Foundation (“Fondacioni Misioni
Emanuel për Shqipërinë”); Contribute for
Education Mission (“Misioni Kontribut për Edukimin”);
Orthodox Union “Friends of St. Cosmo” (Lidhja
Ortodokse ‘Miqtë e Sh. Kozmait’”);
Christian Aid Service (“Shërbesa e Ndihmesës
Kristiane”); Jehova’s Witnesses (“Dëshmitarët
e Jehovait”); Christian and Evangelist Union (“Enti i
Bashkimit Kristian dhe Evangjelist”); Adventistic Church
(“Kisha Adventiste”); Christian Evangelistic Church
(“Kisha Kristiane Evangjeliste”); Charity Mission
“Mother Theresa” (Misioni Bamirës ‘Nëna
Tereza’”); Selessian Association (“Shoqata
Seleziane”); World Baptist Foundation (“Fondacioni
Botëror Baptist”); Yürgen Walman Foundation
(“Fondacioni ‘Jürgen Walman’”);
Contro Informazione Terzo Mondo; Humanitarian Foundation for
Albanian Christian Culture (“Fondacioni Humanitar për
Kulturën Kristiane Shqiptare”); Colping Family
(“Familja Kolping”); European Baptist Federation
(“Federata Baptiste Evropiane”); Youth for a Mission
(“Të Rinjtë për një mision”); “Don
Bosco” Social Center (“Qendra Sociale ‘Don
Bosco’”); Charity Missionaries – Sister M.
Ancilla (“Misionaret e Bamirësisë – Motra M.
Ancilla”); “Jesus’ Pupils” Society
(“Bashkësia ‘Nxënësit e Jezusit’”);
Adventistic Church of the Seventh Day (“Kisha Adventiste e
Ditës së Shtatë”); Mother Theresa Mission
(“Misioni Nëna Tereza); Nehemiyah (“Nehemia”,);
Free Finish Mission (“Misioni i Lirë Finlandez);
Liahona; International Protestant Assembly (“Asambleja
Protestante Ndërkombëtare”); Adra Albania –
Agency for Adventistic and Spiritual Development – Albania
(“Agjencia për Zhvillimin Adventist dhe Shpirtëror
në Shqipëri”); Oklahoma – World Institute of
English for Albania (“Oklahoma – Instituti Botëror
i Anglishtes për Shqipërinë”); Hope for
Albania (“Shpresë për Shqipërinë”);
Gjerasim Qiriazi Foundation (“Fondacioni Gjerasim Qiriazi”);
Estafier.[11]
BETWEEN
EXISTENCE AND EXTINCTION
The
Albanian Muslim Community has witnessed a tremendous shock in its
identity after the new realities of after 9 / 11. In line with the
global hysteria against Islam, even the Albanian state apparatus
was in many cases involved in open crusades against Muslims of
Albania. For example: in January 13, 2003 the AMC’s general
secretary was assassinated in his office. This enigmatic killing
sent the state apparatus and secret services of Albania to go in
an open rampage against Muslims of the country. The state backed
press accused them of being fundamentalist. The offices of the
Albanian Muslim Community were raided in many occasions and their
staff taken into custody without any court order. Common believers
and imams were taken from their mosques having their fingerprints
and pictures taken as suspects, even that until today no single
proof has been found to incriminate Albanian Muslims in this
heinous crime.
This kind
of undeclared official apartheid and discrimination was never seen
by the new generation of Albanian Muslims before. They could not
understand why the press had to accuse them for being
fundamentalists while they were simple believers like their
forefathers? The Muslims of Albania could not understand why the
press had to see them as some kind of criminals. They could not
understand why SHIK (the Albanian Secrete Service) had to plant
bugs in the offices of AMC and their mosques, and later remove
them by causing false bomb alarms in AMC’s offices.
The
present economical and education status of AMC’s staff is
very poor indeed. The absence of well educated people in the body
of AMC and its economical poverty are very heartbreaking for the
Muslims of Albania who aspire to have their own ‘Church’
for spiritual guidance in those hard times which they face.
Muslims of Albania need to build their own institutions, schools,
foundations and medias for protecting their identity and
surviving. But they have no resources for doing that. They have
not even enough mosques where they can pray their Jummah prayers.
At present Tirana, the capital of the country has only 6 Masjids,
and in the days of Jummah, Albanian Muslims are forced to pray
outside Et’hem Beg Mosque in Central Square of Tirana since
the Old Ottoman Masjid can not keep them all inside. The same goes
in other mosques.
The
Albanian Muslims of Tirana do not have any private college where
they can send their covered daughters, when they get fired from
the state schools for keeping their Islamic headscarf. Albanian
Muslims, unlike the Christians do not have any radio for their
community, neither any newspaper. The only Muslim newspaper which
was created in the country after 1991 (Drita Islame), at present
is not being sold and put in circulation by the AMC. Even that
Albanian’s past history is full with remarkable events,
their present situation is very desperate. They do not have even
any Institute for Islamic Studies in the country, which will
preserve and document their Ottoman – Islamic past, and will
teach people the history and religion of their grandfathers under
the Ottomans.
Even that
they constitute the majority of the population, the Muslims of
Albania do not have any political party to represent them and
defend their rights in the front of state’s crusades against
their identity. The absence of political parties, radios,
newspapers, schools, institutions, foundations etc among the
Muslims of Albania is not because their community does not have
staff for managing itself. The main problem which Albanian Muslims
of today faces is part of the larger problem of the Albanian
society itself. The miserable economic conditions which
post-communist Albania has inherited from the communist past and
the fake promises of the era of democracy are the main factor.
Albanian Muslims at the same way as their non-religious Albanians
do suffer from the huge economic misery which the country is
experiencing at present. In a country with the unemployment
marking 50% of the population, which is being ruined since many
years by IMF colonial economic policies, the future of the
Albanian Muslim community seems very grim.
Their
only hope for revival remains on the Huge Ocean of the sleepy
Muslims World. By seeing thousands of Christian Missionaries,
businessmen, officials, institutions and organization invading
their country, they keep on hoping that someday, some rich Muslim
‘sheikhs’ will be reminded that there are some Muslims
living between Italy and Greece. Probably when this day comes,
Albanian Muslims might find in their doors again some Muslim
brothers willing to help them to exist, as the Ottomans did
centuries back, on building their Islamic institutions. But per
sure, the Muslims who will dare and care for them will be not
organization of bureaucrats like those working for the Islamic
Development Bank or OIC which invest in Albania for building Water
Supply Systems costing millions of dollars for the Catholic towns
of the country and forget to help even on opening an Islamic
College in Tirana. Those who might help the Muslims of Albania
survive in the future must be people with faith in God, like the
mighty sultan Fâtih who incorporated the oppressed Albanian
tribes into his mighty empire, for making them later rulers of the
mighty Orient. Until the Muslim World gets reminded about the
presence of their European looking – Muslims in Albania,
they (the Albanian Muslims) will have to struggle for survival in
the unfriendly region in which they happen to be; far away from
the Ocean of the Islamic World, in the very mouth of the
aggressive historical Christianity.
[1]
M. Gleny, The Balkans 1804 – 1999, NY, 2000, p.
23
[2]
B. Jelavich, Historia e Ballkanit, Tirana, 1999, Pp.
87
[3]
S. Shaw, History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, Vol
I, p. 207
[4]
F. Babinger, Mehmed the Conqueror and His Time, Princeton,
1978, p. 390-391
[5]
Ibid, p. 273
[6]
O. Jazexhi, KRYENGRITJA POPULLORE SHQIPTARE E 1912 – 1915,
Kuala Lumpur, 2001
[7]
Marx’s opinion for the people of Orient was that: “They
cannot represent themselves but they must be represented “,
quoted by E. Said in: Orientalism, p. 21
[8]
Historia e Shqiperise, Tirana, 1959, p. 340
[9]
Armin Hetzer, Geschichte und Gegenwart. Probleme der
Geschichreinbung Albaniens, Balkan Archiv, nr. 6, Bremen,
1981
[10]
I. Bardhi, REFLECTIONS ON THE SITUATION OF ISLAM IN ALBANIAN
LANDS, Skopje 1997 - 1998
[11]
Ibid
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